Water-flushing toilets: Systemic development and path-dependent characteristics and their bearing on technological alternatives

In this study, I analyse the historical process that led to embedding water-flushing toilets in the Western world, then I explore innovative developments connected to alternative toilet solutions that use less water. The core argument is that path-dependent characteristics are found both at the systemic level and the level of daily practices. Systemic development and its embedding into daily practices changed and contributed to a lock-in. Then current attempts to introduce alternative toilet solutions are analysed. I conclude by suggesting that established water-flushing routines impede the distribution of alternative toilet solutions, although some potential remains.