Surveillance structure and inspection challenges of small water supplies in the Nordic region

Safe and reliable drinking water supplies are essential for public health, yet small systems remain particularly vulnerable to contamination and receive insufficient attention in surveillance. They are the critical weak link in safe, reliable drinking water for all, worldwide. This study examines the surveillance structures and inspection for drinking water safety in the Nordic region, focusing on small supplies. We mapped the national frameworks for surveillance and conducted 53 interviews with small water suppliers, associations, and authorities across the eight Nordic countries, & Aring;land, Denmark, the Faroe Islands, Finland, Greenland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden, to identify challenges. Our findings show substantial variation in surveillance arrangements. We conclude that small water supplies remain the weakest link in Nordic drinking water safety and that inspectors play a crucial yet under-resourced role in bridging the gap between regulation and local practice. Our results show that it is inadequate to treat small water supplies as down-scaled large systems; rather, it is necessary to understand and analyse their specific characteristics and challenges. We recommend strengthening inspectors' capacity, enhancing technical support and training, adapting surveillance to small supplies and remote areas, improving communication, and prioritizing risk-based approaches to better target resources. Together, these actions can help ensure safe and reliable drinking water across the Nordic region.