Supply of critical raw materials for lithium-ion batteries: Social and environmental risks in Brazil

The demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) grows exponentially with the greener economy transition, causing increasing pressure on the supply of Critical Raw Materials (CRMs). LIB CRMs include alumina, cobalt, lithium, manganese, natural graphite, nickel, and phosphate. Brazil is a major supplier of most of these CRMs and undergoes increasing pressure to expand the exploration of its reserves, harming the environment and local communities. This paper aimed to investigate the social and environmental impacts of extracting LIB CRMs in Brazil, discussing knowledge gaps. There are few scientific studies analysing these impacts in Brazil, differently from other major world suppliers of LIB CRMs. Still, there is much evidence of continuous impacts of CRMs exploitation in Brazil, mainly reported by journalistic and independent sources. Environmental risks include land transformation, deforestation, ecosystem harm, and water quality and availability, threatening all Brazilian biomes, especially the Amazon and Atlantic Forests, Caatinga, and Cerrado. These mining projects have been affecting the livelihood of local communities, causing conflicts regarding land and water use, contamination through air and water, and depletion of natural resources, including food sources.