Crowdsourcing Logistics in Cities

This PhD thesis presents four complimentary studies that propose and investigate the potential for a public transport-based crowdshipping concept. In an effort to alleviate environmental, economic and social issues related to last-mile parcel delivery, the ‘crowd’ of public transport passengers are here enabled to bring along parcels on trips that match parcel delivery routes. Instead of entering the central districts of cities, parcel delivery operators would then place the relevant parcels in automated parcel lockers (APLs) at public transport stops, from which the passengers are financially compensated for picking them up and handing them in at an APL at their matching destination stop. Together, the studies shed light on the potential to attract public transport passengers willing to bring along parcels on their trips, as well as how this potential may be enhanced by addressing relevant identified motivational and behavioural drivers and barriers. The empirical foundation of the four studies consists of (a) a range of in-depth interviews, (b) a survey distributed to a representative sample of public transport users in the capital area of Denmark and (c) pre-/post-surveys distributed in relation to a full-scale field experiment testing the proposed crowdshipping concept.

The first sub-study analyses user preferences in relation to shipment characteristics for the crowdshipping concept. Preferences are also compared in relation to sociodemographic characteristics. This is done through a stated choice experiment included in the first survey. Respondents were presented with four crowdshipping scenarios with variance in the number of parcels, the total size and weight of shipments, the monetary compensation and the extra time required to participate. Willingness to bring along a parcel was positively related to the monetary compensation. The opposite was the case for additional time use related to participation, as well as the weight, size and number of parcels. Willingness to participate decreased with age; young(er) people were more willing to bring along parcels, while individuals above 60 years of age were the least willing. The value of time was found to be slightly above the official Danish value for waiting time but below the value of travel time delay, which illustrates that participation might be considered as waiting time, but that some travel time uncertainty was introduced at the same time.

The second sub-study investigates the potential and accompanying contingencies for user uptake of the crowdshipping concept through a mixed method approach. It examines motivational drivers, barriers and socio-spatial contexts influencing the intention to participate, and includes relevant demographic, social and psychological factors. The importance of three attitudinal factors are highlighted in the results: (a) a joint factor considering the social value, the expected support from important others and positive emotions related to participation, (b) the perceived ease of use and convenience and (c) the attitude towards participating in a commercially organised crowdshipping concept. As in the first study, younger people showed higher willingness to participate. Both the in-depth interview and survey results pointed to the importance of positive emotions elicited by participation. It would therefore be beneficial if a crowdshipping solution were set up and highlighted as a user-driven movement, where the emphasis is on helping out each other and the environment.

The third sub-study presents the main results of the field experiment testing the concept. During a two-month period, 28 automated parcel lockers (APLs) were placed at public transport stations and stops. Participating public transport passengers were rewarded for bringing along empty test parcels on their trips, from APL to APL, via an app developed for the purpose. The purpose of setting up the experiment was to achieve more realistic measures for adoption potential as well as the practical and conceptual aspects that may affect this. The study confirmed the practical viability of the concept from a user perspective, with 82% of participants stating that they, after participating in the experiment, were more motivated to participate in the concept if it should be realised. Further, the study points to the relevance of contextualising and supplementing the construct of intention from the theory of planned behaviour as a measure for adoption propensity for novel technology and services.

The fourth sub-study explores the links between anticipated/experienced positive emotions and habit formation for crowdshipping participation in the already habitualised context of public transport. It additionally explores how such links may be supported by goal framing and how existing travel routines may support crowdshipping habit formation. The study found that participants in the field experiment who anticipated to a higher degree that their participation would evoke positive feelings reported a higher degree of habit formation. Further, recipients of environmentally framed feedback at the parcel hand-in showed more conducive post-survey results – including anticipated positive emotions, habit formation and amount of parcels brought during the experiment – compared to recipients of economically framed feedback. Building upon these points, the study found that the habit formation effect of anticipated positive emotions may be strengthened by framing participation feedback towards normative goals (represented by the environmentally framed feedback) as opposed to gain-focused goals (represented by the economically framed feedback). Lastly, participants using a smartcard – and thus performing a related physical task – reported a higher degree of habit formation than monthly cardholders who simply enter trains/busses directly. Together, the results indicate that the emotional reward value of a certain behaviour may be conditioned onto situational contexts. This contributes to the establishment of cues that trigger the undertaking of the given action.